Original title: A Study of Women in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s Films

I recall the penultimate page of my recently concluded dissertation, wherein I wrote, “It was a novel experience to engage in academic writing, and I found it most agreeable.” I would like to express my gratitude to my parents for their unwavering support and affection. I would like to express my gratitude to my teachers and friends for their companionship. I would like to express my gratitude to the instructors for providing me with a wealth of inspiration and ideas. I now turn to the subject of writing. I would like to express my gratitude to all those engaged in academic pursuits. To us, collectively. I would like to express my gratitude to the universe. The act of enforcing rules and cooperating with those that one does not agree with is a stifling and politically depressing process. My academic training illuminated a previously obscure area, akin to the sudden illumination of a dark room. I was fortunate to have a responsive and guiding mentor. It is unclear whether this was a means of evading reality or a genuine interest in academia. However, it is evident that my initial academic training has already had an impact on my career plans.

Abstract and Keywords #

【Abstract】Hou Hsiao-hsien is a significant figure in the contemporary Taiwanese film industry. With regard to character development, following the mid-1990s, the narrative angle in his films underwent a gradual transition from a male perspective to a female perspective, reflecting his concern for women and humanistic issues. This shift is the focus of this article. The research method employed is text analysis, which is used to sort out the 19 films he directed and divide the female image created into two categories: women in the family and women in society. On this basis, the interpretation and refinement are carried out, and the contrast and analogy analysis are used to consider the similarities and differences of female images in shaping characters and character shaping under the mapping of female images. Through the study of Hou Hsiao-hsien’s female images, from the perspective of film research, it is convenient to further understand Hou Hsiao-hsien’s way of constructing female characters, paying attention to the growth of personal creation and the shaping of characters in the film. An investigation of this subject matter enables an examination of gender relations within the context of a complex power structure, facilitated by the medium of film. Additionally, it provides an opportunity to assess the actual living conditions of women in a way that considers the influence of gender.
【Keywords】Film; Gender; Image of Women; Hou Hsiao-hsien

Introduction #

Background of the Study #

One of the fundamental aspects of artistic creation is characterisation. Hou Hsiao-hsien, a director with a background in screenwriting, possesses a more personalised understanding of film and characterisation. As a prominent director in Taiwan, China (hereafter referred to as ‘Taiwan’), Hou Hsiao-hsien has crafted a diverse array of female characters over his four-decade career. He asserts that these characters possess a vitality that surpasses the narrative constraints of any given story.

In the mid-to-late 1990s, Hou Hsiao-hsien shifted from his early representation of men to that of women, creating a number of films with women as the main point of view. Syd Field posited that the evolution of characters is not a phenomenon occurring in a vacuum. Rather, he regarded such changes as a product of the cultural situation, comparing the environment and background to an empty coffee cup, which is then filled up with details of the specific story and characters surrounding the space (Field, 2005). In his oeuvre, Hou Hsiao-hsien strives to faithfully capture the tangible shifts that occur within the context of an individual’s life. His portrayal of characters is similarly grounded in their authentic, real-life personas. The construction of women’s roles in his works across different periods is closely related to the historical changes experienced by the wider society. This personal experience not only reflects his concern and thinking about women, but also provides a more comprehensive representation of Taiwan’s modern changes from a female perspective.

In 2020, Lisa French posited that gender issues are pivotal in empowering women to enhance their strategic acumen, with the ultimate goal of facilitating women’s ascension to positions of influence within major industries (French, 2020). As indicated by the National Bureau of Statistics (2021), the ‘Main Data Situation of the Seventh National Census’, women constitute 48.76% of the total population ratio (National Bureau of Statistics, 2022). Nevertheless, it is evident that in comparison to the overall population, women are underrepresented in positions of authority and influence within social structures. The concept of gender reflects contemporary social issues, individual thinking and collective perception, and is therefore a multifaceted and dynamic construct. Over the past decade, there has been a notable shift in the composition of women in the film and television industry, with ongoing attention being paid to gender issues (Dooley, 2021). The film industry serves as a reflection of societal norms and can act as a conduit for influencing perceptions of gender issues. It demonstrates the prevailing gender power structures, wherein men are often depicted as the dominant gender. While some female characters in the film are depicted as strong and independent, they do not challenge the apparent gendered power structures. The concept of power is inherently dynamic, as is the notion of power in gender relations. An analysis of Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films reveals a shifting portrayal of women, which can be understood in relation to changing responses to patriarchal ideologies. These responses encompass a range of attitudes and behaviours, including dependence, submission, indifference, resistance, and other forms of engagement with or critique of patriarchal structures.

As previously stated, Hou Hsiao-hsien exhibits a pronounced degree of cultural awareness and a profound concern for the human condition in his portrayal of women and characters. One is compelled to inquire as to the nature of the women depicted in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s cinematic works. What is the nature of his portrayal of female characters? Furthermore, what cultural connotations do they reflect? Nevertheless, the existing research lacks analyses of the image of women in his works. Accordingly, this study will examine the portrayal of women in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films as its primary subject, with a particular focus on Hou’s stylistic approach to depicting female characters and the cultural implications of this representation.

Significance of the Study #

In light of the three points that form the backdrop to this topic, The article’s focus on the significance of character creation, the cultural connection of the social era, and the importance of researching from a gender perspective aligns with Hou Hsiao-hsien’s value of character creation, the cultural connection of the social era, and the importance of researching from a gender perspective, respectively.

(1) From the perspective of characterisation: Hou Hsiao-hsien, regarded as one of the most significant figures in contemporary cinema, has developed a distinctive approach to characterisation. By observing and analysing Hou Hsiao-hsien’s approach to characterisation, we can gain a deeper understanding of his creative style, which also serves as a valuable reference point for the creation of literary films.

(2) From the perspective of gender, the theoretical significance is of primary importance. The three fundamental concepts of the humanities are class, gender and race. The issue of women has been the subject of considerable attention in recent years in the fields of news communication research and sociological research. The film medium constitutes an important component of mass communication. The portrayal of women in film has also attracted the attention of researchers, thereby enriching related research in the field of film/gender. This, in turn, enhances the comprehensiveness and three-dimensionality of the aforementioned research. Secondly, there is the practical dimension. The analysis and cultural interpretation of the female image in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films can facilitate an exploration of Hou’s approach to constructing the female subject and female consciousness, while respecting the individual life. This is of particular significance for uncovering and examining the significance and value of women’s actual existence within the deeply entrenched power structure.

(3) From the perspective of the social era: Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s documentary-style artistic approach enables him to portray female characters in a way that is not only imbued with female significance in his film texts, but also situated within a knowable and palpable historical context. This allows for an exploration of the darker aspects and social dilemmas faced by women and people more broadly. This collective video memory can be used as a valuable resource for understanding the overall change and pulse of society, as well as the evolving role of women in Taiwan and East Asia. This valuable collective video memory offers insights into the broader changes and dynamics of society, as well as the evolving roles of women in Taiwan and East Asia.

Research Status #

Synthesising previous literature, this paper finds that studies related to the chosen topic focus on two main areas: a review of research on the image of women in film and television and a review of research on Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films.

Research on Female Image in Film and Television #

Analysing the Image of Women in Film and Television from a Gender Perspective #

The image of women discussed in this paper is based on the gender perspective.The concept of gender was first put forward by American anthropologist Gayle Rubin (1976).Feminist theory provides a guiding method and research perspective for analysing the image of women in film and television, and the image of women in film is an important branch of feminist film criticism. At the theoretical and linguistic level, the concepts of sex and gender are easily conflated, synthesising the academic view that sex is biological and anatomical, while gender is constructed.Good (2009) suggests that social constructivism is an ontological view, the basic idea of which is that the world has a social basis, suggesting that the world is socially constructed, and that this is a social order about how people perceive the world and how they distinguish between right and wrong in the social order (Good, 1998). It is imperative to acknowledge that gender is not a binary concept (Hyde, Bigler, Joel, Tate, & van Anders, 2019), although the traditional binary gender variable is prevalent in most areas of the social sciences (Westbrook & Saperstein, 2015). However, it is crucial to acknowledge the limitations of this binary approach to gender, as research has demonstrated that treating gender as a variable with only two answer options can be discriminatory towards individuals who do not align with these options (Nowakowski, Sumerau & Mathers, 2016).

Gender is defined as an operation of power and custom that manifests itself in multiple forces. Within traditional patriarchal societies, it can be seen as a manifestation of the subjugation of women, characterised by the ‘rule/power of the father’ (Rich, 2021). This term refers to the irrational traditions, customs, rituals, laws, language, education and division of labour in society that determine the roles women are expected to fulfil, and the subjugation of women to men in a manner related to the family, society, ideology, political system, and so forth. (Rich, 2021).Kate Millett introduced the concept of ‘patriarchy’ in Sexual Politics and first introduced it into feminist theory by looking at norms and institutions of gender and identifying the relationship between the sexes as one of dominance and subordination (Millett, 2016). This suggests that men are inherently and biologically sexually privileged, and that they have the capacity to control and dominate women in order to construct their social meanings.Adrienne Rich emphasises that this system has been the cornerstone of the most diverse social and political systems, influencing at least half of human decisions about life, and that it ex This system is perpetuated in various forms, dividing the ‘private’ and ‘public’ spheres, solidifying human choice and potential, and, in the most basic and perplexing of contradictions, alienating women from their bodies by confining them within the system (Rich, 2021).

The concept of stereotypes was initially theorised by Walter Lippmann in his seminal work Public Opinion (Lippmann, 2017), which is also known by the appellation ’the stereotyping effect’. The impact of screen images on gender stereotypes is a subject that has been extensively researched. While the focus of this research has been on the differences in gender portrayals, there are also several articles in recent years that demonstrate minimal difference in depictions between female and male characters (Hentges & Case, 2013). When observing a film, irrespective of gender, individuals have the opportunity to derive pleasure from the patriarchal nature of the visual content presented to them (Heilman & Okimoto, 2008). Despite some media content having begun to adopt more nuanced portrayals of gender roles, the overarching stereotypical nature of such portrayals remains a salient issue, as Eisenberg (2006) has noted. Mulvey’s seminal work, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema (1989), elucidates that the depiction of female characters’ appearances exerts a pronounced visual and erotic influence, underscoring their perceived allure and desirability. Building on Mulvey’s seminal work, Kaplan (2013) emphasised that the male gaze perpetuates a sexualised and submissive portrayal of women, stifling their social mobility and confining them to the role of the mother.In order to transcend the pervasive influence of the male gaze, Kaplan contends that women must proactively carve out a space for themselves as subjects, thereby initiating a discourse that challenges prevailing stereotypes and enables them to voice their authentic selves. Researchers have provided specific examples that are interpreted depending on how they are shaped, and these shapes can reinforce or challenge stereotypes (Kaplan, 2013).

In the absence of more specific information, stereotypes portrayed by accurate screen imagery may be of use in facilitating a transition (Spencer & Steele, 1999). Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that screen imagery frequently reinforces negative stereotypes, for example, by depicting ethnic minorities as criminals, victims of crime, and in low-status service jobs (Graves, 1999). Prejudice is defined as the unfair and systematic favouring or disadvantageous treatment of an individual or group (Smith, 2010). The portrayal of ethnic minorities in film has been shown to influence perceptions of their involvement in specific occupations and their sense of self-efficacy in those roles (Shrum, 1995). Stereotypes concerning ability or character are a prevalent source of prejudice, often to the detriment of specific demographic groups, such as those based on race, sexual orientation, or gender (Hilton & Von Hippel, 1996). Researchers studying television advertisements have found that women are less likely to be portrayed as workers and that they exaggerate gendered occupational stereotypes (Coltrane & Adams, 1997). This phenomenon has led to concerns that such portrayals may serve to perpetuate pre-existing stereotypes. Nurture theory has been found to predict how people perceive risk after experiencing it in video games (Williams, 1996), and playing a gendered female character has been found to reduce self-efficacy in female players (Behm-Morawitz & Mastro, 2009). Social psychologists posit that screen images have the capacity to influence individuals’ perceptions of social reality (Alzahrani, 2016). Furthermore, Manatu (2014) contends that these images can play a pivotal role in the stimulation of violence, crime, and other antisocial phenomena.

From a feminist standpoint, particularly that of critical feminists, the mass media is regarded as a propagator of machismo, perpetuating a patriarchal-dominated socio-cultural, political, and economic order that is the consequence of the constant reinforcement of negative gender role stereotypes of women. It is evident that these deficiencies in cinematic representation, both on and off screen, have catalysed a series of social movements in recent years. A prominent example of this is the #OscarsSoWhite movement, which has centred on the lack of racial diversity among Oscar nominees. In response, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences has made a commitment to increase the number of women and people of colour within its membership by 2020, a goal that has been endorsed by the #MeToo and #Time’s Up movements, which have focused on raising awareness and advocating for victims of sexual assault, particularly women. Nevertheless, even in the context of these social movements, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and indeed the film industry as a whole, continue to demonstrate a conspicuous underrepresentation of women, both on-screen and off. Stereotypes and a paucity of nuanced female characters persist as pervasive issues in Hollywood, the film industry, and broader society and culture (Milburn, 2000).

Analysing Female Film and Television Images on Screen from a Semiotic Perspective #

The present study explores the notion of the female image as a screen symbol. Film and television costumes are imbued with the symbolic characteristics of general life costumes, with their ‘can mean’ and ‘refer to’ properties. They possess a unique artistic aesthetic, ideological symbolism, popularity and dissemination characteristics. As a pivotal instrument in shaping characters’ images, the primary function of film and television costumes is to serve this purpose. In addition, the process of designing, producing and utilising costumes on set must be meticulously coordinated with the film’s tone and overall style to ensure that they serve the plot and the content of the television programme (Wang, 2021). Xie Zi, a Chinese researcher, has highlighted that film costume constitutes a silent language element, which plays an unignorable role in the shaping of the characters and the visual impact on the audience. As a means to express the connotation of the film, it has the value of deep-level aesthetic research and exploration (Xie, 2015). The image can be regarded as the standard reference point of language, and the stereotypical representation of women in traditional culture can be seen as a process of symbolisation. Symbolisation, i.e. interpreting perceptions for meaning, is a fundamental means of coping with experiences (Barthes, 2015). The portrayal of women in films and television dramas, influenced by the subtle reinforcement of media over time, has led to the establishment of a traditional image of women. This process of symbolisation has resulted in a stereotypical depiction of women, characterised by its one-sidedness (Fan, 2019). In summary, the analysis of the female image is predominantly informed by social ethics and morality. In the depiction of the female image, it is evident that the portrayal of women is characterised by a polarised form, namely the idealised angel and the chaste woman, juxtaposed with the demonised harlot and the unchaste woman (Sun, 2003). Li Shaodong, in his article ‘Images of Women on TV Screens’ (2012), takes the images of women on mainland TV screens since the 1990s as a text and summarises four types of female images in TV dramas: the first is the traditional female mirror image - the ‘wife and mother’ image that saves suffering and hardship, the second is the ‘wife and mother’ image that saves suffering and hardship, and the third is the ‘wife and mother’ image that saves suffering and hardship. As Li (2012) asserts, the initial image represents the mutated female consciousness – that of the ‘strong woman’. The second image signifies the woman as a symbol of instincts and desires that accompany the rise of consumer society, while the third image is that of the woman with an independent character who returns to her true nature. In Taiwan, studies on the image of women have concluded that there are four typical types of women, such as the ‘woman who abides by the ways of women and resigns herself to her fate’, the ‘woman who deviates from her ways and smokes her own fruits’, the ‘virtuous wife and mother’, and the ‘woman who portrays her mother as a good mother’. Women who ‘mould the maternal style’, and women who ’express the awakening of women’s self-consciousness and the cry for women’s dignity’ (Zhu, 2018). Wang Shuai (2019) offers a concise overview of two predominant themes in contemporary Taiwanese cinema, namely, the depiction of women as objects of male desire and the portrayal of women seeking self-discovery and self-actualisation. The image of women influenced by patriarchal culture is shaped by the male gaze, resulting in the objectification of women and the eroticisation of their bodies. For instance, Liu Ying of Northwestern University conducted an analysis of 122 episodes of two variety shows, ‘Woman My Max’ and ‘Spicy Heavenly Harem’, and discovered that the symbolic images of women in the shows have the following three main characteristics: ‘flawless skin and perfect features’, ‘curvaceous body’, and ‘full of self-effacement’. The author calls upon programme makers to recognise the functions and limitations of the mimetic environment, and to take the initiative to assume the social responsibility of constructing an equal and diversified image of modern women (Liu, 2012).

This study explores the connotations conveyed by the female figure as a symbol. The female character as a unique symbol in cinema is undergoing significant changes, both in terms of external representation and connotation.Syd Field (2012) in Screenplay: The Foundations of Screenwriting states that external features represent the relevant body shape, appearance, tone, poise, dress and so on. These external features, in turn, can serve as indicators of the character’s professional status, identity, message, and mental state (Field, 1982). The depiction of women in cinema serves as a reflection of societal cognisance and prevailing ideologies, thereby, to a certain extent, promoting social, ideological and cultural shifts. Nevertheless, its fundamental nature remains that of a constructed media discourse, embodying the essence of a ‘myth’. As early as 1949, when Beauvoir published The Second Sex, she had already predicted the construction of the image of women in film and television, i.e., ’the construction of the image of the Other by culture, the complicity of women in oppression, and the different positions of male and female writers in the production of culture’ (Thornham, 1997). Lin Hsiao’s ‘A View of Women in Taiwanese Cinema - An Analysis of the Portrayal of Women in Taiwanese Cinema’ (2014) describes the casting of women’s roles in four historical phases: In the 1950s, women’s images primarily served the function of political propaganda, with these women acting as propagandists for the government. In the 1960s, ‘Healthy Realism’ became the prevailing trend, with ‘wholesome realism’ being the norm. Women were portrayed as models of traditional femininity, fully conforming to the standards of a patriarchal society. In the 1970s, the subject matter revolved around the ‘Qiongyao style’, and tended to be a flat ‘perfect woman’. In the 1980s, on the one hand, the works of more and more female writers were being written by women. In the 1980s, an increasing number of works by female writers were adapted into films, with many of these films succeeding in portraying resolute and courageous women. Concurrently, a number of films directed by female filmmakers began to highlight women’s consciousness, and some male filmmakers also began to portray women differently from the past. From the 1990s onwards, the portrayal of women’s images in Taiwanese cinema gradually shifted from grand narratives to explorations of personal growth and emotions, such as portraying women’s growth and emotions. Since the 1990s, Taiwanese cinema has undergone a gradual shift in its portrayal of women, moving from grand narratives to explorations of personal growth and emotions. This shift is evident in films that depict the profound sisterhood between women, delicate depictions of same-sex themes, and films that focus on women’s personalised growth (Lin, 2014). In summary, scholars have employed semiotics, psychoanalysis and narratology to analyse the significance of women’s image construction, and have observed the impact of the transformation of the times on the transformation of women’s image, and that these filmic stories obscure a self-conscious and unconscious narrative.

The present study examines the context reflected in the image of women as a symbol. The evolution of the female image is influenced by a converging array of political, economic, and cultural factors, which collectively mirror not only shifts in the social environment, but also transformations in human cognition and psychological processes. Lee Ching (2006) has conducted extensive textual analyses and divided the evolution of female portrayals in Taiwanese cinema into four distinct phases: the traditional depiction of women in the 1960s and 1970s, the transformation of women into a spectacle in the popular Qiong Yao romance films of the 1970s, the portrayal of women in the 1980s, the reimagining of women in the 1980s, and the portrayal of women in the 1980s and 1990s. The reinterpretation of women’s images in history and reality in the 1980s, as well as post-industrial women’s images following the 1980s, are indicative of the awakening of women’s consciousness in film and television. Such an evolution is closely related to the social and cultural changes and pulsations of the entire region (Li, 2006). In 2012, Sun and Wang proposed that women in contemporary Taiwanese cinema have undergone a challenging process of navigating phallocentrism, which they divided into three phases. The first phase, spanning from the 1960s to the 1970s, saw women operating within the confines of phallocentrism. The second phase, from the 1980s onwards, witnessed women boldly resisting male power and striving towards independence. The third phase, beginning in the 1990s, witnessed a diversification of women’s images and a positive portrayal of lesbianism, influenced by the Cooler Theory. The image of women who boldly resisted male power and moved towards independence, and the increasing diversity of women’s images since the 1990s; the image of lesbianism was positively written under the influence of the coolie theory. By studying the transmutation of women’s images in contemporary Taiwanese cinema from this perspective, the authors generally project that women’s images in contemporary Taiwanese cinema have undergone a process of transmutation from being deliberately marginalised and dwarfed to being restored to active expressive roles, and thus being explored in depth from multiple perspectives (Sun & Wang, 2012). By undertaking a vertical analysis of the intricate and arduous transformation process of women’s images in Taiwanese films across various historical periods, this study ascertains that this historical shift is the consequence of the interplay of political, commercial, cultural, legal, religious and other factors.

Review of Hou Hsiao-hsien’s Film Studies #

From the point of view of artistic creation #

The earliest study of Hou Hsiao-hsien is Taiwan’s New Cinema (1988), written by Jiao Xiongping, who is regarded as the ‘godmother of Taiwanese cinema’. In this treatise, she dedicated a special chapter to Hou Hsiao-hsien for the purpose of evaluating his films, and made an in-depth interpretation of his works in the ‘Taiwan New Cinema Movement’ in terms of artistic expression, film themes and other dimensions. Jiao Xiongping’s seminal article ‘Loves the Wind and Dust - Sentient Heaven and Earth’ (1988) offers a profound interpretation of Hou Hsiao-hsien’s oeuvre through the lens of ‘aesthetics’ in traditional Chinese culture, positing that Hou’s unique camera language and narrative techniques are emblematic of the artistic style of Taiwan’s new cinema, which exerts a profound influence on traditional Chinese culture. Hou Hsiao-hsien’s camera language and narrative techniques are emblematic of Taiwan’s new film art style, and he evinces a profound comprehension and unique understanding of traditional Chinese culture. Following the 1990s, the study of Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s directing style witnessed a surge, largely facilitated by the adoption of contemporary Western film theories. The analysis of Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s films is comprised of three levels. Firstly, Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s style theory is considered, secondly, Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s audio-visual expression is examined, and thirdly, the characterisation of Hou Hsiao-Hsien is explored. Through this, scholars are able to investigate the overall direction of Taiwanese cinema. In terms of creative style, Meng Hongfeng’s Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s Theory of Style (1993) is one of the earliest explorations of the establishment of Hou’s video style during the period of Taiwan’s New Cinema Movement, i.e., ‘boredom,’ ‘flabbergastedness,’ and ‘muddiness,’ in terms of stylistic features. In terms of stylistic features, Hou’s sense of reality is primarily deduced from the aspects of ‘materialised emotion’ and ‘psychological tension’. The author posits that the genesis of Hou’s distinctive style is attributable to his own broad-mindedness and talent, complemented by a pronounced sense of humour and a strong sense of responsibility. The conclusion drawn by Meng (1993) is that Hou’s personal style is the result of his broad-mindedness and talent. In contrast, Kim Sook-xi’s ‘On the Poetic Temperament of Hou Hsiao-hsien’s Cinema’ (2008) is more representative of this approach, focusing on the ‘poetic narration of cultural motifs’, ’exploration of the poetic realm of video style’ and ‘poetic expression of the humanistic spirit’ of Hou’s films. The article focuses on the ‘poetic narration of cultural themes’, ’exploration of the poetic realm of video style’ and ‘poetic expression of the humanistic spirit’ of Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s films, which completely and profoundly demonstrate Hou’s style of ‘screen poetry’ (Jin, 2008). In terms of audiovisual expression, the focus of Huang Mengyu’s article ‘Research on Hou Hsiao-hsien’s Film Sound’ (2016) is on the exploration of the sound elements in Hou’s films, the aesthetic tendency of sound, and the internal and external factors in the creation of sound art, etc. (Huang, 2016). By undertaking a horizontal comparison of Hou’s film sound with that of Yasujirō Ozu, Déchông Yang, and Jia Zhangke, the study demonstrates the value and charm of Hou’s film sound art (Huang, 2016). Coincidentally, an article by Chen Xuguang and Li Yjian also adopts a comparative perspective, analysing and comparing Hou and Jia’s long shots in detail, and the authors deduce that the two have a certain degree of similarity, but due to different cultural contexts, they have formed their own different artistic pursuits in their artistic creations, which are mainly reflected in the fact that ‘Hou provides a unique and distinctive aesthetic for the development of Chinese-language cinema and even Oriental aesthetics’. Hou has been instrumental in shaping the oriental image practice that has contributed to the evolution of Chinese cinema and oriental aesthetics. In contrast, Jia has been influenced by the image spirit of western neorealism, employing long shots to capture the zeitgeist, and utilising the technique of ‘witnessing’ and ‘speaking’ to give voice to the ordinary individual. (Zhou, 2017)In terms of characterisation, Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s filmmaking underwent a significant transformation after the mid-1990s, and Zhou Zhongmou has noted that Hou consciously relinquished the role of the male protagonist, Instead, he opted to showcase the lives of women on the margins of society, portraying an unconventional state of existence and offering insights into his personal life experiences, thereby evoking reflections on gendered life and alluding to the prevailing social structure in Taiwan (Li, 2006).

Analyses from the cultural perspective of the social era #

Such studies are more likely to establish a vertical link between Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s works from a historical and cultural perspective, in order to elaborate on and observe the changes in the entire Taiwanese film industry and Taiwanese society through the analysis of Hou’s cinematic journey. In his ‘Life of Confucian Dreams: The Authorship of Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s Cinema’ (2006), Li Hsiang employs the ‘authorship’ research method to analyse the director’s growth, social change, and the evolution of his cinematic creativity. The study ultimately concludes that the ‘authorship of cinema’ exhibited by Hou Hsiao-Hsien constitutes the most salient aspect of his cinematic career. Li (2006) concludes that Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s ‘authorial cinematic qualities’ are rooted in the deep Chinese national heritage. Leng Bo’s (2010) article chronicles Hou’s development from his ‘repressed childhood’ to his ’entry into the film industry’, ‘raising the banner of the “New Cinema Movement”’, and ’the new film movement’, which is the first step in the development of Hou’s career. The progression from his ‘depressing childhood’ to his ’entry into the film industry’, ‘raising the flag of the “New Cinema Movement”’, ’the “Tragic Trilogy” that established his status as a master’, ‘his realistic style of cinema’, and his present day, has been the focus of considerable research. Since the 2000s, research on Hou Hsiao-hsien’s film life has also been increasingly open, with biographies, interviews, and interdisciplinary approaches to the director’s cinematic achievements. One of the most frequently cited books is Taiwan Film Directors: A Treasure Island (Yeh, 2005), a collaborative effort between Professor Yeh and Darrell Williams (2005). Yeh himself is known to be personally opposed to frivolous comments about Hou Hsiao-Hsien, and the book absorbs theories of film writing, communication, and sociology to examine Hou’s life from the perspective of social and identity identity. This book draws upon a range of theories, including film writing, communication, and sociological theories, to explore the works of Hou Hsiao-Hsien and other directors from the perspective of social identity.James Udden’s No Man an Island: The Cinema of Hou Hsiao-hsien(2014) and others interviewed Hou Hsiao-hsien and his collaborators on several occasions in the form of biographies or monographies on the director. The authors of this book believe that Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films reflect Taiwan’s unique history and geography, and could only have been born out of the country’s unique history and geography. The book also examines the regional influence of Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films on other Asian directors (Udden, 2007). In conclusion, the academic analysis of women’s representation in Taiwanese cinema has been predominantly macro-level, with a paucity of attention given to the methodology of constructing women’s images and the distinctive characteristics of Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s oeuvre. However, the theoretical underpinnings and practical insights of his predecessors have significantly informed the development of this study.

Research Methodology and Framework #

Research Method #

It has been observed that a wide variety of media forms have been the subject of extensive study within academic circles. In addition to conventional media such as television, radio, cartoons, music and games, new forms of media are being introduced through the Internet. A plethora of methodologies have been employed to analyse these data, with discourse analysis and quantitative content analysis being the most prevalent (Bazzini, McIntosh, Smith, et al., 1997). However, given the paper’s emphasis on ‘interpretation’ as a methodological concept, qualitative research is adopted. With regard to specific research methods, textual analysis is primarily employed. Compared with other research methods, textual analysis is more suitable for this study. Firstly, it can classify female figures at the surface level. Secondly, it can deeply interpret the emotions and hidden cultural meanings behind the characters. Thirdly, it can explore Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s creative style and conceptual changes from the characteristics of female figures. Textual analysis is an umbrella term for a variety of traditions in the study of media content, and it encompasses a number of schools of thought such as semiotics, psychoanalysis, frame analysis, and discourse analysis, and thus does not have a uniform operating procedure (Jiang, 2013). However, it does share certain commonalities. These include a focus on a profound exploration of the text from the outside in, with an emphasis on interpreting the deeper meanings. In the domain of cultural studies, any cultural phenomenon is regarded as a text, and this paper employs the concept of text in cultural studies. In the domain of media studies, the four pioneering figures in the field of communication, as referenced by Wilbur Schramm, who is regarded as the first to self-identify as a scholar of communication, exhibited minimal utilisation of textual analyses. This resulted in the underutilisation of a limited array of texts in mass communication from the inception of the discipline (Rogers, 1994). Rogers, 1994).In the 1960s, structuralist thinking, initiated by Saussure, Strauss and others, ushered in a period of significant advancement, and textual analysis was gradually adopted by scholars in the field of communication. Roland Barthes was the first to utilise the structuralist theory of symbols, which he regarded as a science of form, and he revealed the ‘myths’ shaped by the media, and termed his research ‘myth’ analysis (Barthes, 2011). Since the 2000s, various forms of popular culture have also become the object of textual analysis, with scholars applying psychoanalytic theory and semiotic methods to study media content that degrades women and distorts their image (Chen, 2007). Within the domain of film studies, scholars have increasingly embraced textual analysis as a research method. The prevailing theories encompass classical approaches, such as those propounded by Bazin and Kracauer, among others. These scholars frequently employ the analytical framework of the humanities, encompassing semiotics, psychoanalysis, feminism, gender studies, and postmodernism. The application of textual analysis to media and film studies, in general: from a functional point of view, textual analysis enables researchers to explore the content of media on a case-by-case and small-scale basis, facilitating access to the underlying political concepts, ideologies and cultural implications of the text. In addition, it allows learners and initiates to gain insight into the real and moving ideas of scholars. It is possible for learners/initiators to observe some of the scholars’ innovative ideas. However, from another perspective, this method is also subject to limitations, primarily due to its lack of validity for two reasons. Firstly, it is highly subjective. Firstly, it is highly subjective. The utilisation of textual analysis in the study of media content is further hindered by the researcher’s personal experience and analytical ability, resulting in a high degree of variability in the quality of the ‘interpretation’. Consequently, the degree of promotion is low. Secondly, the sample selection is small. The majority of these studies are case studies, which are generally not representative enough to infer the whole from individual cases, or to judge the frequency and trend of specific meanings at a certain time.

In summary, the paper is grounded in the textual analysis method, which encompasses gender, media and gender, film, feminism and associated theoretical frameworks. In terms of text selection, given that Hou Hsiao-Hsien has participated in the creation of a large number of films, and his creative career is not yet complete, this paper takes into account the two elements of universality and representativeness, and extracts some of the more typical female characters appearing in the films directed by Hou Hsiao-Hsien as the sample for analysis. At the same time, it takes into account the portrayal of other characters, which ensures that the important information is captured, and also avoids unnecessary interference. This paper presents an analysis of the female images constructed in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films, exploring the cultural connotations and ideologies that underpin his creations.

Research Framework #

【 p.s. Parts II and III constitute the ‘analysing the problem’ and ‘parsing the problem’ sections of the paper, respectively. They are not included here, given the uncertainty surrounding the possibility of further publication. Should anyone wish to discuss this further, I would be happy to correspond with them privately.】

The Image of Women in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s Films #

The Basis for Classifying Female Characters and Description of Sample Selection #

Analysis of Typical Female Roles in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s Films #

The Family Image of Women in the Films #

Social Image of Women in the Films #

Analysis of Female Image in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s Films #

Vision and Characters: Women in the Film #

Performance of Appearance #

Representation of Clothing #

Focus of the Eyes #

Presentation of the Body #

Role and Gender: Women in the Director’s Perspective #

Comparative Analysis of Women’s Image in Director’s Creation #

The Director’s Personal Creative Experience #

Women and Humanity: Humanity in Female Creation #

Character Relationships of Women in Cinema #

Analysis of Character Meanings from the Perspective of Gender #

Findings #

In the analytical section of the article, this paper takes the 19 films directed by Hou Hsiao-Hsien as the subject of analysis and interprets the principal female images in them as the research subjects. In the discussion section of the In this article, we conduct a further analysis of the female template presented in the films and the women as seen through the director’s perspective. This is based on desk research and extends to social relationships and human nature in combination with the image of women in film and television. The four main findings are summarised below.

First and foremost, Hou Hsiao-hsien’s audacious examination of the principal female characters and female consciousness in his cinematic oeuvre offers a significant contribution. In his films, Hou Hsiao-hsien presents a relatively diversified image of women. Furthermore, he depicts some women who have attained a degree of subjectivity and autonomy, despite their initial passive and subordinate position. In particular, women are depicted in family relationships as wives and lovers who do not conform to the traditional ‘good wife’ archetype. Instead, they are portrayed as struggling and imprisoned, as well as mothers who embody traditional tender and loving characteristics, those who are absent, and those who are undergoing a process of transitioning to modernity. Additionally, as daughters, there are those who have not rebelled against patriarchal structures and those who are determined to pursue their own autonomy. In their role as daughters, some women have been unable to resist the influence of patriarchy, while others have been more successful in pursuing their own individual paths. In terms of social relationships, there are women whose ideologies are more constrained due to their professions, while there are also women who have become aware of their own agency as a result of their professions. Hou Hsiao-hsien presents a diverse array of female characters in his films, exhibiting a range of similarities and differences. Over the course of his career, which has spanned more than four decades, Hou Hsiao-hsien has directed 19 films and participated in the creation of 126 additional film and television productions. Hou Hsiao-hsien has played a significant role in the Taiwanese film industry and wider Taiwanese society. The portrayal of women in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films enables an examination of the manner in which the image of women is presented and constructed within the context of a film. When we arrive at the time and space where the characters are located, and then withdraw from them, we can find that Hou Hsiao-Hsien is shaping the women in the corresponding environments in the context of the times, and that he is showing the process of awakening of women’s consciousness. The transformation of Taiwan’s society is precisely the kind of transformation that allows for the simultaneous existence of old and new female consciousness.

Secondly, an analysis of the presentation of the main female characters in Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s films, coupled with an investigation of his creative rules and his sense of femininity, reveals Hou Hsiao-Hsien’s misgivings about the fate of women. In Hou’s films, there is a pronounced emphasis on masculinity in the initial stages, which then gives way to a shift in creative focus towards female characters in the subsequent stages. Following this shift in perspective, it would be inaccurate to suggest that he has undergone a complete transformation, moving from his original style to create films that are explicitly focused on women and feminist themes. This does not align with the reality of his creative process. Nevertheless, as evidenced by the aforementioned case study, it is evident that Hou Hsiao-hsien has endeavoured to emancipate women from the constraints of tradition and social gender roles. However, this endeavour is not as optimistic as one might assume, due to the combined impact of various general circumstances and the director’s personal creativity. Indeed, few women ultimately succeed. Hou Hsiao-hsien did not provide a definitive answer regarding Nala’s subsequent fate. As a prominent director in Taiwan and a globally renowned figure in the film industry, this remains the case. It is therefore possible to hypothesise about the future work of other directors.

Thirdly, film can be considered a reflection of reality, but it can also be viewed as a potential predictor of future developments. When we consider the films of Hou Hsiao-hsien beyond the context of gender, it becomes evident that they are based on the fundamental attribute of the ‘human being’ to explore the destiny of individuals in different times. This approach can be seen as embodying a kind of humanism. It is precisely because of this value judgement criterion that we can analyse a kind of sad but warm gender position and gender consciousness in his films. An analysis of the portrayal of women in Hou Hsiao-hsien’s films can facilitate a deeper comprehension of the challenges and advancements faced by women in the contemporary era. The female characters in Hou’s films who have developed a sense of female consciousness are depicted as constantly navigating a complex interplay between their personal desires and the traditional norms of their society. Furthermore, the joys and contradictions inherent to familial life, as well as the courage and struggles evident in social life, as reflected in the films, serve as a mirror for us to gain insight into the contemporary women. They allow us to perceive and further comprehend the confusion that women encounter in reality. In the real world, women are expected to realise their self-worth. At the same time, they are subjected to significant social pressures, including the pressure to obtain higher educational qualifications and to compete in the workplace. Conversely, women are subject to traditional concepts and are expected to fulfil the roles of both the family’s protagonist and the male assistant. Consequently, women are subjected to dual pressures and responsibilities from both societal and familial sources. In comparison to their traditional counterparts, modern women have attained a superior economic and social standing. However, the burden of pressure and social responsibility they bear is more significant than that experienced by their predecessors.

Finally, feminism has never been a battlefield for women. The growth of women requires not only self-respect and self-love, but also the pursuit of independence, equality and freedom by women themselves. At the same time, men, including those who grow up with them, should also treat women with a sense of equality and respect for women. What is important between men and women is mutual respect and independence and equality of personality. This kind of respect and equality is not simply confrontation or harmony, but mutual understanding and respect reached through disputes, discussions and exchanges. It involves every existing individual, and expresses the rejection of power, the refutation of discrimination, and the resistance to prejudice, and the struggle against the absolute, monolithic, and one-sided understanding of our society. It is not only women who need to be rescued, it is every individual who is persecuted by the patriarchy. This foundational civilisation requires every modern person with ‘presence’ to look directly, introspect and rethink, to go beyond simple gender essentialism and gender constructivism, to transcend gender dichotomies, and to shape a more peaceful relationship between genders and society.

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Last modified on 2022-05-15